Neurons {sympathetic nervous system, hormones} can express leucine-enkephalin, methionine-enkephalin, adenosine, neuropeptide Y, cholecystokinin, luteinizing-hormone releasing hormone (LHRH), VIP, and vasopressin-like molecules.
Atrial glands secrete A and B peptides, which depolarize abdominal-ganglion electrically coupled neurons {bag cell}. Bag cells secrete peptides, including egg-laying hormones, into blood to affect central neurons and ovotestis.
Enzymes {catechol-O-methyltransferase} (COMT) can inactivate catecholamines.
Hormones {epidermal growth factor}| (EGF) can support brain-cortex neurogenesis. Cell-membrane outsides have EGF receptors. EGF binding stimulates cell growth and division. Cancer cells have many EGF receptors.
Hormones {fibroblast growth factor}| (FGF) can support cerebral-cortex neurons, especially striate-cortex neurons. At high concentrations, FGF enhances neurogenesis. At low concentrations, FGF increases neuron and glia survival rates. Fibroblast growth factor 8 organizes cortex. Human genes {fibroblast-growth-factor receptor L1 gene} (FGFRL1 gene) can be similar to flatworm genes {nou-darake gene} {Ndk gene} that repress neuron division.
Hormones {microphthalmia-associated transcription factor} (MITF) can regulate eye development, blood-cell development, and skin pigments.
Cyclized 20-carbon unsaturated fatty acids {prostaglandin}|, with two carbon-chain tails, come from all tissues, derive from fatty acids, have over 14 varieties, lower blood pressure, make smooth muscles contract, and block hormones.
types
Prostaglandins can degenerate corpus luteum and regulate activities induced by hormones. Prostaglandin E1 affects inflammation, contracts smooth muscles, stops stomach hydrochloric-acid production, opens bronchi, stops fat breakdown, constricts pupils, relaxes blood vessels, and reduces blood pressure. Prostaglandin I2 inhibits platelet clumping and prevents arterial-lining damage. Endoperoxides regulate cyclic-AMP metabolism and are prostaglandin intermediates.
comparison
Aspirin, arthritic drugs, and anti-inflammatory drugs are similar to prostaglandins.
polarity
Prostaglandins change polarization over the long term.
metabolism
Enzymes {prostaglandin synthetase} can catalyze arachidonic-acid oxidation to prostaglandin H2. Enzymes {prostaglandin hydroperoxidase} can oxidize xenobiotics. Cyclooxygenase-2 and other cyclooxygenases (COX) can generate prostaglandin. Aspirin, ibuprofen, rofecoxib, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug inhibit cyclooxygenases.
Molecules {scotophobin} can make animals afraid of the dark.
Brain, cerebrospinal-fluid, and cerebral-blood peptides {sleep peptide}| can induce sleep.
Brain and gut peptides {bombesin} can lower body temperature, control gastric secretions, and stimulate appetite.
Intestinal hormones {peptide YY3-36} (PYY) can work in hypothalamus to reduce appetite.
Gut, hypothalamus, medulla-oblongata, pons, substantia-nigra, and spinal-cord dorsal-root peptides {substance P}| (SP) can be in fine pain fibers and affect peripheral sympathetic catecholamine neurons. Substance P releases serotonin from terminals inhibited by serotonin. Substance P makes long lasting excitation by slow, excitatory postsynaptic potentials and can cause pain. Substance P increases preprotachykinin mRNA. Sympathetic-neuron activity suppresses substance P. Serotonin enhances substance-P release to excite spinal cord.
Gut, cerebral-cortex bipolar-cell, and submandibular salivary-gland postsynaptic parasympathetic-neuron peptides {vasoactive intestinal peptide}| (VIP) can regulate neuronal mitosis, process outgrowth, and sympathetic-neuron survival.
Three genetically different peptide families {endorphin}| include proopiomelanocortin (POMC), proenkephalins, and prodynorphin. One large exon encodes peptides derived from proenkephalin and POMC, so this gene encodes related behaviors.
locations
Pituitary-gland intermediated lobe and anterior lobe synthesize POMC. Cortex, spinal-cord neurons, adrenal medulla, and gut make proenkephalins. Gut, posterior pituitary, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and brainstem make prodynorphin.
types
Alpha-endorphin soothes. Beta-endorphin causes analgesia. Gamma-endorphin irritates.
biology
Endorphins are neurohormones or neurotransmitters. Endorphins bind to opiate receptors to inhibit pain-information transmission and cause analgesia. Peripheral pain-receptor stimulation thresholds increase, and central pain perception becomes less sensitive. CREB regulates endorphin production.
Pituitary hormones {encephalin} {enkephalin}| can have five-amino-acid opioid cores, bind to morphine-binding sites, and inhibit pain-information transmission. Enkephalins can acetylate, amidate, phosphorylate, glycosylate, and methylate. Methionine-enkephalin and leucine-enkephalin are peptides, act as opioids, and are in area postrema, locus coeruleus, medulla oblongata, pons, retina, superior olive, spinal cord, and ventral pallidum. Methionine-enkephalins are beta-endorphin precursors. Leucine-enkephalins are dynorphin precursors.
functions
Sympathetic-nervous-system enkephalins control blood vessels, regulate local blood flow and pressure, and cause analgesia.
Basal-ganglia, hypothalamus, pituitary-gland, and adrenal-gland peptides {opiate peptide}| {opioid peptide} can act as analgesics when in cerebrospinal fluid. Repeated stressful stimuli release opioids. Basal ganglia opiate peptides include dynorphin, beta-endorphin, met-enkephalin, leu-enkephelin, and kyotorphin. Bony fish and higher animals have opiate systems.
Hormones {proenkephalin} can act on posterior pituitary hormones, to control blood volume and regulate blood pressure. Cortex neurons, spinal-cord neurons, adrenal medulla, and gut make proenkephalins.
Anterior pituitary, mediobasal hypothalamus arcuate nucleus, and solitary-tract nucleus make opiate peptides {proopiomelanocortin} (POMC). POMC releases ACTH, endorphins, and melanocyte-stimulating hormones. POMC influences adrenal cortex and blood pressure.
Medulla oblongata, solitary tract nucleus, and adrenal-gland medulla release biogenic amines {adrenaline} {adrenalin} {epinephrine}| that can inhibit or excite neuron metabolism for seconds.
biology
Epinephrine stimulates sympathetic nervous system and increases heart activity and muscular action. It releases glucose from liver and makes glucose from glycogen. It increases heart rate and constricts most blood vessels but dilates coronary and skeletal muscle arteries. It dilates bronchi, relaxes smooth muscle, contracts sphincters, and contracts spleen.
causes
Stress, fear, and flight-or-fight response release epinephrine.
norepinephrine
Norepinephrine reacts similarly.
Adrenal-gland medulla, lateral tegmentum, locus coeruleus, medulla oblongata, and sympathetic neurons release biogenic amines {norepinephrine}| {noradrenaline} {noradrenalin} that can inhibit or excite neuron metabolism for seconds.
biology
Norepinephrine stimulates sympathetic nervous system and increases heart activity and muscular action. It releases glucose from liver and makes glucose from glycogen. It increases heart rate and constricts most blood vessels but dilates coronary and skeletal muscle arteries. It dilates bronchi, relaxes smooth muscles, contracts sphincters, and contracts spleen.
causes
Stress, fear, and flight-or-fight response release norepinephrine.
epinephrine
Epinephrine reacts similarly.
4-Zoology-Organ-Endocrine Gland-Hormone
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Date Modified: 2022.0225